The United Nations (UN) has been existence for over seventy
years. Its existence may be
controversial for those who believe that it poses a threat to national sovereignty;
however, it has played a critical role over its lifetime in providing an
environment for dialog between nations in the midst of conflict and has on many
occasions averted the possibility of unrestrained conflict. One of the early architects of the UN was Dag
Hammarskjold. A brief description of his
life and his contribution to the cause of world peace is described below. In addition to his role as a global
statesman, Hammarskjold was also a poet in his own rite.
The UN was created in 1941 by the Allied powers during World
War II anticipating the end of the war with the goal
of maintaining the peace after the hostilities had ended. The one significant drawback regarding the
makeup of this organization is the fact that it is essentially controlled by
the powerful industrial nations through the Security Council that was originally
composed of five members - the United States, the Soviet Union, China, France and England.
The UN is under the leadership of the Secretary General, who
is voted in. The first Secretary General
was Trygve Lie, who remained in that position until 1952. During his administration, many UN members
had lost confidence in the international organization for a number of
reasons. The Security Council had become
known for its inaction. Furthermore, the
Taiwanese government represented China on the Security Council after mainland
China - People’s Republic of China (PRC) - had fallen to the Communists. As a consequence, about one-quarter of the
world’s population was not represented. In protest regarding this exclusion,
representatives of the Soviet Union boycotted the UN from January to
August 1950; it was their absence that allowed for the UN-sponsored military
intervention in Korea.
At that time, Lie had supported the Security Council’s
decision to resist by force the invasion of South Korea by military forces from
North Korea - a conflict that was first called a “police action” but eventually
came to be referred to as the Korean War.
The Soviet Union essentially ignored Lie after 1950 and
right-wing elements of the United States were severely critical of his
leadership. As a consequence of the
Korean War, Lie came under
intense political pressure. He
ultimately resigned his position on November 10, 1952.
At that time, Dag Hammarskjold was Minister of State in
Sweden’s Foreign Office. He was
recommended for the post of Secretary General of the UN and was accepted by all
with the exception of the Chinese. Hammarskjold
was truly surprised by the nomination; he never expected it. After considerable personal deliberation, he
accepted the nomination and on April 10, 1953, he was instated.
The following taken from a speech he made at John Hopkins
University in 1955 sheds considerable light on his worldview and the principles
that motivated him, “The dignity of man, as a justification of our faith in
freedom, can be part of our living creed only if we revert to a view of life
where maturity of mind counts for more than outward success and where happiness
is no longer to be measured in quantitative terms. Politics and diplomacy are no play of will
and skill where results are independent of the character of those engaging in
the game.” He was a realist, but also
was a man of strong ethics. He was a
believer in the power of the mind, especially when operating through reasoned
judgment. He deeply valued integrity and
what he often referred to as “maturity of mind.”
To further illustrate the character of his thinking, I have
included a number of his commentaries taken from his book entitled, Markings:
“A heart pulsating in harmony with the circulation of sap
and flow of rivers A body with the rhythms of the earth in its movements? No.
Instead: a mind, shut off from the oxygen of alert senses, that has
wasted itself on “treasons, stratagems and spoils” – of importance only within
four walls. A tame animal – in whom the
strength of the species has outspent itself, to no purpose.”
“Like the bee, we distill poison from the honey for our
self-defense – what happens to the bee if it uses its sting is well known.”
“O how much self-discipline, nobility of soul, lofty
sentiments, we can treat ourselves to, when we are well-off and everything we
touch prospers – Cheap: scarcely better than believing success is the reward of
virtue.”
“Only he deserves power who every day justifies it.”
“To preserve the silence within-amid all the noise. To remain open and quiet, a moist humus in
the fertile darkness where the rain falls and the grain ripens-no matter how
many tramp across the parade ground in whirling dust under an arid sky.”
“The style of conduct which carries weight calls for
stubbornness even in an act of concession: you have to be severe with yourself
in order to have the right to be gentle to others.”
“Do not seek death.
Death will find you. But seek the
road which makes death a fulfillment.”
“Forgiveness breaks the chain of causality because he who
“forgives” you---out of love---takes upon himself the consequences of what you
have done. Forgiveness, therefore,
always entails a sacrifice.
“The price you must pay for your own liberation through
another’s sacrifice is that you in turn must be willing to liberate in the same
way, irrespective of the consequences to yourself.”
These comments offer, in my judgment, important insights
into the character and persuasions of the man and inform us regarding the inner
motivations that determined his actions.
Hammarskjold was born on July 29, 1905 in Jonkoping,
Sweden. His father, Hajmar Hammarskjold,
was involved in Swedish politics; he served as a delegate to the negotiations
that led to the dissolution of the Swedish union with Norway. He was a severe man, fully entrenched in his
principles. His father ultimately became
Prime Minister in 1914. Over time, he
became unpopular; his views were interpreted as essentially undemocratic and
reactionary. During the First World War
he proclaimed Sweden’s neutrality. In a
joint note to both warring parties, Hajmar proposed that the Swedish government
remain the guardian of international principles. He was chosen as chairman of the League of
Nations Committee for the Codification of International Law and delegate to the
Disarmament Conference. Hammarskjold
felt that one of his father’s admirable qualities was that he believed in and
actively sought justice. His mother,
Agnes, was described as having clarity of mind and a radically democratic view
of her fellow humans.
Hammarskjold was obviously influenced by both his
parents. Given his upbringing, it is no
surprise that he chose a life of public service. Those who knew him found him to have a quick
and astute mind, a sense of humor, boundless curiosity and to be highly
disciplined. These traits would serve
him well as Secretary General of the UN.
At the time that Hammarskjold took over the Secretary General
position at the UN, the international body was in disarray, especially in
regards to its role in the Korean War in the midst of the Cold War. He realized that the UN needed reorganization;
he set about this task with remarkable energy.
The world community seemed to be pleased with his efforts and, more
importantly, his results.
According to Brian Urquhart, author of Hammarskjold, “Hammarskjold saw as the primary function of the UN
the day-to-day effort to control and moderate conflicts that were a threat to
peace, through a system of mediation and conciliation developed on the basis of
the sovereign equality of states. This
primary function went hand in hand with a long-term effort to attain wider
social justice and equality both for individuals and, in the political,
economic and social senses, for nations.
He believed that progress in this direction must be based on a growing
respect for international law and on the emergence of a truly international
civil service, free from all national pressure and influences and recognized as
such by governments.”
He saw his role as Secretary General as a discreet,
objective and relentless negotiator always acting with and through sovereign
governments. He visualized his role as
an embodiment of the hopes of mankind and for peace and justice. He felt that in this position, he should
avoid pointing a finger of blame. It is
a position that only assumes any semblance of authority when the situation
becomes so tenuous and dangerous that the UN becomes the last hope for a
peaceful resolution.
During his tenure as Secretary General, Hammarskjold had to
employ his talents and abilities on numerous occasions. We will focus on one in particular regarding
the issue of Palestine. With the
collapse of the Ottoman (Turkish) Empire during World War I, the colonial powers,
especially Great Britain and France, filled the political vacuum left by the former
empire. The post war arrangements that
were a direct result of this shift in power and influence created the
environment for future upheavals, especially the Arab-Israeli conflict that
persists even to this day. When
Hammarskjold arrived at the UN in 1953, an uneasy peace was maintained through
armistice agreements and the Tripartite Declaration of France, Great Britain
and the United States, signed in May 1950.
Its purpose was to maintain the status quo and prevent aggression by any
governments in the region against their neighbors. The inherent instability of the region came
to a head in 1948 with the creation of the state of Israel. There were many factors that contributed to
the de-facto end of the Tripartite Declaration including the growth of Arab
nationalism, the increased influence of the Soviet Union in the region and the decline of influence of
the waning powers of Great Britain and France.
The failed Arab invasion of Palestine in 1948 exacerbated the underlying
tensions.
To further exacerbate difficulties in the region, President
Gamal Abdul Nasser of Egypt refused to allow ships to and from Israel to pass
through the canal despite UN resolution issued in 1951 that called upon Egypt
to allow all ships to pass through the canal.
In spite of his intransigence, Great Britain and France pulled their
troops out of the canal. The enmity
between Israel and Egypt and other neighboring Arab states in the region
quickly deteriorated. Skirmishes and
reprisals soon began to spiral out of control.
Israeli raids into Gaza and raids of Egyptian-trained Palestinian
fedayeen became all too common place.
During this time, Hammarskjold made it quite clear that he would not intervene
in any way; until, he was asked to do so.
It was not long before the situation became so grim that he was called
upon to get the offending sides to negotiate with one another. Despite the intense enmity and hatred,
Hammarskjold managed to get Nasser and David Ben-Gurion of Israel to sit down
with one another; this represented a significant first step in the negotiation
process. Eventually, all sides agreed
upon a cease fire. This was a truly
amazing accomplishment. In spite of this
success, Hammarskjold was too much of a realist to believe the situation was
resolved, for he knew only too well that he was but one man. In fact, in just a few years the Suez Canal
crisis would erupt, and, once again, he would be called upon to employ his
remarkable skills.
Dag Hammarskjold had an illustrious career; until, his
untimely death in a plane crash while trying to help bring peace to the
troubled African Congo. He was a person
of great courage and inner strength, who believed strongly in the cause of
peace and the rule of law. He was driven
by a strong sense of purpose, and an indefatigable willingness to serve. He dedicated himself to a selfless life of
service for what he understood to be the greater good.
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